Ship Modelling

The Rigging of Old Ships

Q: "How were the old ships rigged?"

The sail rigging of ships has a tradition of about 2000 years. But until 1200-1400, most ships had only 1 mast with one sail, the easiest rigging possible.

It was when ships became bigger and bigger, so the "question of propulsion" became important. It became clear that galleys, supporting speed by hundreds of oars, were not always apppropriate. So until the age of the steam machines in 1850, the scientific developement of the ships hull and the sail rigging was the only way to gain improvements in the "shipping business". Thus, the former heavy ships became more agile, faster and safer.

So, the masts carried ever more sails ...

... and the ships had 2,3,4,5 or even more masts...

There are hundreds of different rigg types all over the world. Their "classifications" has some overlappings, a topsail schooner is very near to a barquentine.

One level deeper, we can go to the obvious lines seen on depictions: leech- and buntlines on the fore side of the sails, and clewlines on the aft side.

The first 1-sail-masts did not need any, the whole sail was taken down. In the following centuries, masts became higher, and less yards were veered down to furl a sail. Thus, new lines were needed to furl the sail up to the yard center; in the 19th century, clewlines moved from the yard centers to the yard arms, and thus, buntlines were altered and became more...many variants are possible and were altered as needed.

Q: "How do we know? What sources do we have?"

We have in fact very little evidence. We have to rely on ancient sources as books and depictions. The rigging of old ships, with the exception of only a handful of wrecks found, is lost entirely. Secondary literature, which is most of our material available today, is only resampling and reconstructing these ancient descriptions.

  • Contemporary and Modern Models

    Well, building a model after a (better) model is of course an "option", but those models usuable for this are very rare, indeed, and are all in a museum, or hidden in a private collection. Those models are definitely not for lending, like books. So the only thing one can do in a museum is: making pictures: photos or self made drawings. IF making photos is allowed ...

  • Ancient Depictions and Illustrations

    • Artworks: Drawings, Paintings, Lithographies and Prints

      The quality of these images are depending on the maritime knowledge of the artist. The images vary from "very naive" and unclear to photorealistic. Before the era of the Renaissance, "realistic" depictions are non-existent to our modern sense. Most details interesting to a modeller are missing. But between 1500 and 1900, realistic maritime artworks have been made in abundance; many captains were proud to have a portrait of their ships in the cabine. Most of them are preserved in the museums or private collections.

      But, a photorealistic picture can be misleading quite easily, just because it is so realistic. And because it is a standing picture and not a movie - it freezes a short moment and shows it in eternity - , the image makes us believe that the rigging depicted had been applied all the life span of the ship, over decades - this is not true! A steady painting of a ship completely hides the flexibility that a rigging always had. The backstays wave in the winds and smack against anything in their ways - unless they are secured, by means missing in the pictures. Top mast spars were often under repair (fatigue fractures) and change, or they were taken down, because a lofty rigging is a safety hazard in a storm: it is useless because the royals and topgallants cannot be set, and even without sails, the storm can blow the top rigging away.

      On the other hand, these images are our only depictions available before photography was invented and became usuable after 1870.

      Modern artworks, made after photography was used, can be even more misleading, to a "naive" observer. Those artists often consulted photography as sources for their paintings, to make them more realistic:

      Obviously, they succeeded doing so, like Spurling in 1924, but their images are just as questionable as the ancient artworks, when You go into details: here, the stunsail tacks go forward on deck. In this wind, the strain on the booms from abaft is so strong that it is much more likely to let the tacks lead abaft and haul them taut, to secure the stunsails in their position ...just my 2 cents :)

      Please do not think I am too picky about this - a captain of these days would have felt being insulted to see his ship portrayed almost perfectly - "but, hey, there are only 6 main shrouds, we have 7, can´t You SEE?"

    • Photographies

      It has become so extremely easy to makes photos in our time that it becomes ever more inimaginable how difficult it was in the early days ... The quality of all photographies was depending on these limiting facts:
      • Exposure time: several seconds at least allowed only for depicting of non-moving objects: ships in a calm harbour: or, the exposure time was so long that all water waves were "merged" into the illusion of a perfect calm!

        The clipper Halloween

      • Focal Lenses: many photos were rather unsharp, as the quality of the lenses was not as high as today. This was the major cause of the "bad quality" of so many images.

      • Aperture: in combination with the exposure time, details were often shined out. To make those pictures usuable for reproduction, some were heavily retouched, deleting even more details.

        Example: the only known photo of the clipper Thermopylae with sails:

        image of the Thermopylae, retouched
        (found in Lubbock: The Log of the Cutty Sark, p.289)
        the non-retouched image - but with a moiré :/
        (found in Hume/Armstrong: The Cutty Sark and Thermopylae Era of Sail, p.42)

      • Granularity: in combination with the size of the photo plate (the negative with the emulsion), the depiction of details was limited. Photo plates were small, because the chemicals were expensive.

      I do not know a single photo showing a sailing clipper ship with stunsails. I only know many non-photographic images that show them, but many are questionable.

      Virtually all early photos show sailing ships with sails furled or drying in a harbour. And of those rare ones showing sails, only a small part show enough details. Later photos were better, but at as time went by, the old ships were lost.

      We today, in 2009, are so used to look at 1000 *excellent* images (or more) each day. In 1909, the sheer existing of a single photo reproduced in a book was a sensation! Those old images are all utterly rare, especially to our overfed eyes. But, when You find an image usuable for rigging research, it tells You more than an entire book:

      The wool clipper Argonaut. 90% of the running rigging can be identified and thus reconstructed, using this single image!
      (found in Hume/Armstrong: The Cutty Sark and Thermopylae Era of Sail)

  • Contemporary and Secondary Books

    There are of course books that contain a lot of images mentioned above, but they also contain many information that was not possible to depict. For instance, the orders given to set or furl sails, tables with all proportions and instructions how to build a ship and how to make sails.

    I have more on books here in my library :)

Some Patterns for Reconstruction

The basis for the reconstruction of a rigging is the form of the ship (its´ type), its´ shape, that is: the number and layout of decks, and the positions of the masts upon them. You can use historic depictions for this (in fact, those are mostly the only reliable sources). Pictures say more than 1000 words ...

Then, You can proceed using the basic elements of the sails, because the physical problem never changed: how can a sail be attached and raised to "some stable piece of wood" (the mast), in order to propulse the ship in the desired direction, without loosing the sails in the winds or harming the ship by listing over. Which lines are needed to handle those sails, when setting or furling them.

So here are the patterns: there are only a handful of sail types. And all these sails have some distinct lines, and a certain number of them due to their size:

Running Rigging for a Staysail
  1. Halyard: 1
  2. Sheet: 2 (port + starboard)
  3. Downhaul: 1

    → total: 4

Running Rigging for a Square Sail
  1. Halyard: 1
  2. Sheet: 2 (port + starboard)
    + Tacks for the lower sails ("courses"): 2 (port + starboard)
  3. Topping Lift: 2 (port + starboard)
  4. Brace: 2 (port + starboard)
  5. Clewline: 2 (port + starboard)
  6. Buntline: 2 to 8 (pairs, port + starboard)
  7. Bowlines: 2 (port + starboard)

    → total: 13-19

Bowlines became out of use during 19th century. 		Running Rigging for a Gaff Sail
  1. Peak-Halyard: 1
  2. Throat-Halyard: 1
  3. Vangs: 2 (port + starboard)
  4. Spanker Sheet: 2 (port + starboard)
  5. Outhaul: 1
  6. Inhaul: 2 to 4

    → total: 6-10

Running Rigging for a Studding Sail
  1. Halyard: 1-2
  2. Sheet, Tack: je 1
  3. others, up to 4

    → total: 3-8

Studding Sails came out of use after 1850, the yards were wide enough then...

So You can set up a matrix showing all elements and countings for all sails:

  • Staysail:
    Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet: Downhaul:
    [Stay-Name]-Sail: [Stay-Name]-Halyard
    1     		[Stay-Name]-Sheet
    2     		[Stay-Name]-Downhaul
    1

  • Square Sail
    Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet:
    Tack:     		Topping Lift: Brace: Clewline: Buntline: Bowlines:
    [Mast- and Yard-Name] -Sail: [Mast- and Yard-Name] -Halyard
    2
    		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Sheet
    [Mast- and Yard-Name] -Tack
    4     		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Topping Lift
    2     		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Brace
    2     		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Clewline
    2     		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Buntline
    6

    		[Mast- and Yard-Name] -Bowlines
    2

  • Gaff Sail at the Mast:
    Sail / Line Peak- and Throat-Halyard: Boom Sheet: Outhaul: Inhaul:
    [Gaff-Name]-Sail: [Gaff-Name]-Peak-/Throat-Halyard
    2     		[Gaff-Name]-Sheet
    1-2     		[Gaff-Name]-Outhaul
    1-2     		[Gaff-Name]-Inhaul
    2-8

  • Studding Sail:
    Sail / Line Inner and Outer Halyard: Sheet and Tack: Topping Lift: Downhaul: Clew:
    [Studding Yard]-Sail: [Studding Yard]-Inner and Outer Halyard
    1-2     		[Studding Yard]-Sheet and Tack
    2     		[Studding Yard]-Topping Lift
    0-1     		[Studding Yard]-Downhaul (Martingale)
    1
    lower studding sails only     		[Studding Yard]-Gei (Guy)
    2
    lower studding sails only
    where two studding sails can be set on the same yard (port and starboard).

    Thus, we can name and count all the lines of the Running Rigging, even if we have no chance to see the ship with our own eyes.

    You only need the names and the number of the sails. This information can be taken even from small old fotos or paintings. The rest can be reconstructed rather accurately:

    Example: the Portuguese three-masted barque "Sagres II"

    NOTE: On modern windjammers like the Sagres, the lower yard, tower topsail and often lower topgallant are fixed in a rack and have no halyards. But in this case, I do AS IF this ship had halyards on those, too ...

    So we have:

  • 2 square sail masts (Fore and Main), each with 5 yards (Course, Lower and Upper Topsail, Topgallant Sail, Royal)
  • 1 Mizzen mast with 2 spankers (lower and upper) and a gaff topsail.
  • 4 staysail on the bowsprit
  • 3 staysails between two masts

    So we have the following collection for the entire Running Rigging:

    1. Fore Staysails and Jibs:
      Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet: Downhaul:
      Fore-Stay-Sail: Fore-Stay-Halyard
      1       		Fore-Stay-Sheet
      2       		Fore-Stay-Downhaul
      1
      Inner Jib: Inner Jib-Halyard
      1       		Inner Jib-Sheet
      2       		Inner Jib-Downhaul
      1
      Jib: Jib-Halyard
      1       		Jib-Sheet
      2       		Jib-Downhaul
      1
      Outer Jib: Outer Jib-Halyard
      1       		Outer Jib-Sheet
      2       		Outer Jib-Downhaul
      1

    2. Fore Mast Square Sails
      Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet:
      Tack:       		Topping Lift: Brace: Clewline: Buntline: Bowlines:
      Fore Course: Fore-Yard-Halyard
      2
      		Fore-Sheet
      Fore-Tack
      4       		Fore-Topping Lift
      2       		Fore-Brace
      2       		Fore-Clewline
      2       		Fore-Buntline
      6

      		Fore-Bowlines
      2
      Fore-Lower-Top-Sail: Fore-Lower-Top-Halyard
      1
      		Fore-Lower-Top-Sheet
      2       		Fore-Lower-Top-Topping Lift
      2       		Fore-Lower-Top-Brace
      2       		Fore-Lower-Top-Clewline
      2       		Fore-Lower-Top-Buntline
      6       		Fore-Lower-Top-Bowlines
      2
      Fore-Upper-Top-Sail: Fore-Upper-Top-Halyard
      1
      		Fore-Upper-Top-Sheet
      2       		Fore-Upper-Top-Topping Lift
      2       		Fore-Upper-Top-Brace
      2       		Fore-Upper-Top-Downhaul (Fore-Upper-Top-Clewline)
      2       		Fore-Upper-Top-Buntline
      2       		Fore-Upper-Top-Bowlines
      2
      Fore-Topgallant-Sail: Fore-Topgallant-Halyard
      1
      		Fore-Topgallant-Sheet
      2       		Fore-Topgallant-Topping Lift
      2       		Fore-Topgallant-Brace
      2       		Fore-Topgallant-Clewline
      2       		Fore-Topgallant-Buntline
      6       		Fore-Topgallant-Bowlines
      2
      Fore-Royal-Sail: Fore-Royal-Halyard
      1
      		Fore-Royal-Sheet
      2       		Fore-Royal-Topping Lift
      2       		Fore-Royal-Brace
      2       		Fore-Royal-Clewline
      2       		Fore-Royal-Buntline
      4       		Fore-Royal-Bowlines

    3. Staysails between Fore- and Main-mast
      Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet: Downhaul:
      Main-Stay-Sail: Main-Stay-Halyard
      1       		Main-Stay-Sheet
      2       		Main-Stay-Downhaul
      1
      Main-Topgallant Stay-Sail: Main-Topgallant Stay-Halyard
      1       		Main-Topgallant Stay-Sheet
      2       		Main-Topgallant Stay-Downhaul
      1
      Main-Royal-Stay-Sail: Main-Royal-Stay-Halyard
      1       		Main-Royal-Stay-Sheet
      2       		Main-Royal-Stay-Downhaul
      1

    4. Main Mast Square Sails
      Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet:
      Tack:       		Topping Lift: Brace: Clewline: Buntline: Bowlines:
      Main Course: Main-Yard-Halyard
      2
      		Main-Sheet
      Main-Tack
      4       		Main-Topping Lift
      2       		Main-Brace
      2       		Main-Clewline
      2       		Main-Buntline
      6

      		Main-Bowlines
      2
      Main-Lower-Top-Sail: Main-Lower-Top-Halyard
      1
      		Main-Lower-Top-Sheet
      2       		Main-Lower-Top-Topping Lift
      2       		Main-Lower-Top-Brace
      2       		Main-Lower-Top-Clewline
      2       		Main-Lower-Top-Buntline
      6       		Main-Lower-Top-Bowlines
      2
      Main-Upper-Top-Sail: Main-Upper-Top-Halyard
      1
      		Main-Upper-Top-Sheet
      2       		Main-Upper-Top-Topping Lift
      2       		Main-Upper-Top-Brace
      2       		Main-Upper-Top-Downhaul (Main-Upper-Top-Clewline)
      2       		Main-Upper-Top-Buntline
      2       		Main-Upper-Top-Bowlines
      2
      Main-Topgallant-Sail: Main-Topgallant-Halyard
      1
      		Main-Topgallant-Sheet
      2       		Main-Topgallant-Topping Lift
      2       		Main-Topgallant-Brace
      2       		Main-Topgallant-Clewline
      2       		Main-Topgallant-Buntline
      6       		Main-Topgallant-Bowlines
      2
      Main-Royal-Sail: Main-Royal-Halyard
      1
      		Main-Royal-Sheet
      2       		Main-Royal-Topping Lift
      2       		Main-Royal-Brace
      2       		Main-Royal-Clewline
      2       		Main-Royal-Buntline
      4       		Main-Royal-Bowlines

    5. Staysails between Main- and Mizzen mast
      Sail / Line Halyard: Sheet: Downhaul:
      Mizzen Stay-Sail: Mizzen Stay-Halyard
      1       		Mizzen sStay-Sheet
      2       		Mizzen Stay-Downhaul
      1
      Mizzen Topgallant Stay-Sail: Mizzen Topgallant Stay-Halyard
      1       		Mizzen Topgallant Stay-Sheet
      2       		Mizzen Topgallant Stay-Downhaul
      1
      Mizzen Royal-Stay-Sail: Mizzen Royal-Stay-Halyard
      1       		Mizzen Royal-Stay-Sheet
      2       		Mizzen Royal-Stay-Downhaul
      1

    6. Mizzen Mast Sails
      Sail / Line Outhaul: Downhaul: Sheet: Inhaul: Buntline: Gaff-Sheet:
      Lower-Mizzen -Sail: Lower-Mizzen -Outhaul
      1       		Lower-Mizzen -Downhaul
      1       		Lower-Mizzen -Sheet
      1       		Lower-Mizzen -Inhaul
      1       		Lower-Mizzen -Buntline
      1       		Spanker Sheet
      2
      Upper-Mizzen -Sail: Upper-Mizzen -Outhaul
      1       		Upper-Mizzen -Downhaul
      1       		Upper-Mizzen -Sheet
      1       		Upper-Mizzen -Inhaul
      1       		Upper-Mizzen -Buntline
      2       		Vangs
      2
      Mizzen -Gaff-top-Sail: Mizzen -Gaff-top-PiekHalyard
      1       		Mizzen -Gaff-top-Downhaul
      1       		Mizzen -Gaff-top-Sheet
      1
    OK. What is left now are the Belaying Positions ...

    Here are some 20 books dedicated to rigging:
    TITLEAUTHORPUBLISHERYEARPAGES
    Die Brigg
    Modellbaureihe DK (German)    		 Dåbritz/Quinger DK 1983 64
    Eagle Seamanship - A Manual for Square-Rigger Sailing
    (English)    		 Regan + Johnson Naval Institute Press 1978 200
    Eighteenth-century Rigs & Rigging [Bemastung und Takelung von Schiffen des 18. Jahrhunderts]
    (English)    		 Marquardt, Karl-Heinz Conway 1992 330
    Masting and Rigging - The Clipper Ship and Ocean Carrier
    (English)    		 Underhill, Harold A. Brown, Son & Ferguson 1965 290
    Masting, Mast-Making and Rigging of Ships
    (English)    		 Kipping, Robert Crosby Lockwood and son 1898 158
    Plank-on-Frame Models and Scale Masting and Rigging Vol I+II
    (English)    		 Underhill, Harold A. Brown, Son & Ferguson 1958/1974 160+160
    Rigging Period Ship Models
    (German)    		 Petersson, Lennarth Catham Publishing, London 2000 120
    Sailing Ship Rigs & Rigging
    (English)    		 Underhill, Harold A. Brown, Son & Ferguson 1938/1969 128
    Seventeenth Century Rigging
    (English)    		 Anderson, R.C. Marshall 1955 146
    Square Rigged Sailing Ships
    (English)    		 MacGregor, David R MAP 1977 144
    Square Rigger Days
    (English)    		 Domville-Fife, C.W. Seeley Service & Co Ltd 1938 252
    Square Riggers - The Final Epoch (autogram of the author!!!)
    (English)    		 Hurst, Alex A. Teredo Books 1972 542
    Steel´s Art of Rigging 1818
    (English)    		 Fisher Nautical Press 1818/1974 140
    Steel´s Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging
    (English)    		 Edward W. Sweetman Co, NY 1794/1932/(1980) 300
    The Art of Rigging
    (English)    		 Biddlecombe, G + Pentecost,E.H. Edward W. Sweetman Co, NY 1848/1969 156
    The Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War 1625-1860
    (English)    		 Lees, James Conway 1979 196
    The Rigger´s Guide
    (English)    		 Bushell, Charles Griffin & Co (Portsmouth) 1906 254
    The Rigging of Ships in the days of the spritsail topmast, 1600-1720
    (English)    		 Anderson, R.C. Dover 1927/1994 278